Movie review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 7

Movie Review Example This is because he tells Alexandria a story about five warriors who were on an epic quest, but continues only after Rose has stolen for him a morphine from one of the dispensaries. As the story continues it changes into reality as all the characters in the story are shown including Alexandria and Roy who are incorporated into the film. The outstanding character in this movie is Alexandria (Catinca Untaru) who is nine years old. She depicts the annoying balance between a hopeless girl and annoying child who misses a parent’s love. Alexandria is fascinating especially the way she struggles to understand Roy. Even though, the movie has many aspects, the most significant aspect of the film is the way the producer has managed to piece all different elements into one big world. The film is conceptually ambitious and stunning visually; it encourages the viewers to invest much interest and how the director managed to use dual narratives shows how he thought about very little details of the film. As the movie advances, the line between fiction and reality becomes thinner as the characters in the Roy’s story are interwoven into reality including Alexandria and Roy themselves. In connection to this, one of the main messages that the director is passing to the audience is that it is possible to create the reality virtually out of anything. In conclusion, since Interior architecture is a combination of the practice and study of architecture with interior design. The film is, therefore, relevant to the field in that the director has managed to piece different elements into one big reality. Looking at the movie it is visually attractive with background colors that are harmonious. In addition, the director has also managed to create a thin line between reality and fiction by integrating Roy and Alexandria into the story that that Roy was telling

Webster family case study

Webster family case study The Case Study: The Webster Family, A Family In Crisis? This assignment requires me to outline what model of assessment I will use when working with the Webster family. I will also give a description on how the family was referred to social services for a Section 47 (S47) investigation. There will be a strategy meeting and the details of this meeting will be outlined along with instructions given. There will be a case conference held to discuss whether the children are at risk of significant harm or the likelihood of significant harm. There will be a clear recommendation as to whether I will register these children on the child protection register, justifying my decision. Whilst working with the Webster family I will explain what legislation I used, my research into the theories involved and also I will provide details of any anti-oppressive practice and any anti-discriminatory practice whilst working with this family. Ms Webster and Mr Webster have lived together for twelve years. They have three children, Faith and Hope who are twins and are aged ten and Charity who is seven years old. Charity has Cerebral palsy, is doubly incontinent and is a wheelchair user. Mrs Webster is a teacher and Mr Webster was a probation officer who up until twelve months ago worked full time. Following an accident a work he has taken early retirement on health grounds and is now employed full time as a househusband looking after the children.   The family are not known to social services or any other welfare agencies. There have been many tensions building up within the family home since his accident and after a violent row Mr Webster left the family home. After speaking to the headmaster it appeared there had been an incident of domestic violence in front of the children and staff. Previous to this incident, the day before Charities class teacher had had reported to Mr Perry that over the last two weeks Charities appearance had deteriorated, her clothes were unclean and her nappies were soiled and Charity smelled of urine. Charity had also began being aggressive to her friends and to the staff. A staff member had also discovered pressure sores on Charity. When Charities teacher telephoned Ms Webster to tell of their concerns, Ms Webster was frosty in response. After the incident outside the school Mr Webster explained that Ms Webster had attacked him on two other occasions and these incidents again where witness by the children. On both occasions the police were called, however Mr Webster was concerned about social services and did not press charges. After the incident, later that afternoon The Education Welfare Officer (EWO) Ms Murray, went to visit Ms Webster at home but was refused entry. Ms Webster was verbally abusive. Ms Murray then tried to speak to Charity but she refused to talk to her. Ms Murray then went to visit Mr Webster where the twins were staying. The twins seemed fine but a little subdued. Mr Webster stated that he would be looking after the twins and he would like custody of all three children. Following the visit a strategy meeting was formed. A strategy discussion will take place if there is reasonable cause to suspect that a child is suffering or is likely to suffer significant harm. This will involve The Local Authority Social Care, the Police and other bodies as appropriate for example, a headmaster or a teacher (Working Together to Safeguard Children, 2006).   Present in the meeting was myself (duty care social worker), Ms Gold (my team manager), WPC Bond (family protection unit), Mr Perry (headmaster) and Ms Murray (EWO). A strategy discussion is to share information regarding the situation at hand and another aspect is to plan how the S47 enquiry, if there is to be one, should be carried out. We can also agree action is required immediately to safeguard and promote the welfare of the child. The Domestic Violence Unit reported they did not refer these incidents to Social Services as they did not see the children to be at any risk, however Working Together states t hat children may suffer directly and indirectly if they live in households where there is domestic violence and domestic violence is likely to have a damaging effect on the health and development of children. It is often appropriate for such children to be regarded as children in need S17. Mckie (2005) makes some interesting observations on the terms perpetrator and victim in an analysis of domestic violence. The policies and practices connected with domestic violence become gendered in so far as women are conceptualized as those who should act. Mckie (2005). Working Together also says that children who witness domestic violence have been shown to be at risk from behavioural, emotional, physical, cognitive functioning, attitude and long term developmental problems. We do know that Charity has become aggressive and abusive. After the strategy meeting and because of the concerns regarding Charity, It was agreed after a discussion with my team manager that I would visit Ms Webster to discuss the referral from school. From this I would then make an assessment as to whether the child/children are at risk of significant harm or the likelihood of significant harm. The overall decision was that a S47 enquiry should proceed with immediate effect. Some children are in need because they are suffering or likely to suffer significant harm. Concerns about maltreatment may be a reason for a referral of a family to social services. In such circumstances, the Local Authority is obliged to consider initiating enquiries to find out what is happening to a child and whether action should be taken to protect a child. This is set out in Part V S47 of The Children Act 1989 (Protection of Children). The Framework for the Assessment of Children In Need and Their Families (2000), section 1.28 states that the LA has a duty to respond to children in need to provide services to minimise the effects of disabilities, this applies to Charity. We also have to take steps to prevent neglect or ill treatment. There does appear to be in this, in relation to Charitys case. Section 17 of the Childrens Act says that services may be provided to assist a child in need. This would refer to Ms Webster if she is agreeable because the needs of parent carers are an integral part of an assessment because providing these services which meets the needs of the parents is often the most effective means of promoting the welfare of children, particularly disabled children. My role now is to recommend which route we proceed down. When I went to visit Ms Webster, She was hostile towards me. Ms Webster said she had never been violent to her husband before and denied the incident outside school. Ms Webster claimed she had no problems looking after her children but showed a negative attitude towards Charity. She spoke about Charity as if she was not there and referred to Charity as she instead of by her name. Ms Webster said Charity was hard work and was always soiling her nappies, shouting and crying. Ms Webster seemed angry as she was explaining this. Whilst we were talking, Charity did not say anything but looked as if she wanted to cry. Charitys appearance was unclean and she smelled of urine. Ms Webster was clearly upset about her husbands sexuality, more than for the safety of her children. When entering Charitys bedroom which Ms Webster had reluctantly agreed to, I found bed clothes stained with urine and stools. The en-suite and bath were both unclean. The rest of the home however was clean and tidy. I sp oke to Ms Webster about my concerns and told her that she would be entitled to help if she would accept it. This empowered Ms Webster and allowed her to feel there was help if she wanted it and she was not alone. Ms Webster did say that she thought Charity may have been affected by witnessing the recent arguments and she would make sure Charity was not further stressed that day. It was discussed that Charity had pressure sores; from this Ms Webster became frosty. Reluctantly she agreed to take Charity to see her doctor and I arranged to visit the next day. The following day on the 20th January 2008 I visited Ms Webster, but there was no answer. When I tried to telephone her there was still no answer. As a result from this, there were concerns regarding the domestic violence and the condition of Charity and it was decided that a Child Protection Case Conference was to go ahead. I will explain this model of assessment I used in this case before I go on to the case conference. The model of assessment used is The Framework for The Assessment of Children In Need and Their Families (DOH 2000) more commonly known as the assessment framework. The assessment framework will be integrated into the revised Working Together to Safeguard Children. A key principle of this framework is that it is child-centred; this means that the child is seen and kept in focus throughout the assessment. The child or children are my main priority as a child social worker. It is also rooted in child development which includes recognition of the significance of timing in a childs life. Calder, M and Hackett, S (2003). This particular assessment model is dynamic, fluid and continuous, this helps the intervention because as changes occur in a persons life, it can adapt to the changes and my care plan can also be adaptable. A criticism of this model is the timescales can force social workers towards a procedural model whereas the Exchange Model offers an empowering dialogue with parents. Smale et al (2000) identify a weakness in this model in that this approach may not work if the service user is not engaging in the process or are unable to articulate themselves.  Ã‚   It also denies that workers have a professional responsibility and can be time consuming, which may create difficulties given the time constraints of The Assessment Framework.   It also overlooks the need to adopt a procedural approach given the various questionnaires/scales utilised. Changes have appeared to have happened over the last two weeks for Ms Webster and her family. Domestic violence, with both parties blaming each other and the deteriation of Charitys appearance and her temper towards others. This leads me onto another concept of my assessment, which is parenting capacity. This is done using the assessment triangle, which includes child developmental needs, family and environmental factors. The DOH dimensions of parenting capacity has six core dimensions of parenting capacity, three of these provisions suggest that Charity is not receiving emotional warmth, Charitys needs for secure, stable and an affectionate relationship, appropriate physical contact to provide comfort and warmth and stability of attachments and basic care to provide food, drink, warmth, appropriate clothing and personal hygiene. Ms Websters capacity concerns me because of her response to Charity and her circumstances involving her cleanliness and her appearance, the way she speaks about Charity, whilst Charity can hear her mother, and her reaction to use support and accept help and the relationship between Ms Webster and Charity. Childrens chances of receiving optimal outcomes will depend on their parents capacities to respond appropriately to their needs at different stages of their lives Calder, M and Hacket, S, (2003). Some of the above factors are included in the integrated model for assessing parenting capacity. The parenting style I would suggest of Ms Webster is neglectful parenting as she is neither responsive nor demanding of Charity. Ms Webster lacks the monitoring and the supervision duties surrounding Charity at the moment. Neglect is the persistent failure to meet a childs basic physical and/or psychological needs, likely to result in the serious impairment of the childs health or development. Working Together To Safeguard Children (1999). From my assessment I would put forward in my opinion and recommend that Charity to be put on the child protection register S47 but not her two twin sisters, but would offer support under S17. This is because of the declining condition of Charitys physical condition and appearance, due to her persistent soiled nappies, the urine smell on Charity, her dirty clothes, her pressure sores and her aggressive nature toward others. Charity has suffered some the physical neglect of because of the delay of being taken to a doctor by her mother. Charity also suffered abuse due to witnessing the domestic violence and therefore there is a h3 possibility of emotional abuse. Research shows that prolonged and/or regular exposure to domestic violence can have a serious impact on the child and/or childrens development and emotional wellbeing and can lead to serious anxiety and distress and in some cases the repetition of violent behaviour. Department of Health (2006). All these factors could lead to significant harm. These are the categories for registration. The twins will not be registered as they are not in any immediate danger as they are both cared for by their father and his partner at the moment, a police check has been carried out and neither is known, the EWO has no concerns regarding the twins. However this situation needs to be monitored and regularly reviewed to safeguard the children as this situation may change. My reasons for recommending registration are the three incidents of domestic violence over the last three months, one known to have been witnesses by the children. Ms Websters reaction outside school when she was verbally abusive, erratic and aggressive. There are neglect issues. We also need to take account of Charities additional needs. A definition of disability is children and their families whose main need for services arises out of the childrens disabilities or intrinsic condition (DOH 2000). This applies to Charity as she falls within the category and she has a medically diagnosed condition, which is Cerebral Palsy. Both parents are blaming each other for the domestic violence issues. There are concerns by school staff regarding Charitys decline in appearance and her aggression. There is also the issue of family attachments which I noted earlier in parenting capacity. After making a recommendation to register Charity an Initial Child Protection Case Conference was set for 28th January 2008. Ms Webster was informed of the decision by telephone and I arranged with her to visit and give her a copy of the notes before the meeting, this will empower Ms Webster and give her some idea of what will happen. I will also keep the family fully informed throughout, invite parents to meetings and explain procedures in an open and honest way. But I will ensure the parents are fully aware of my concerns regarding the risks towards Charity. The function of a case conference is to bring together the child (where appropriate), family members and those professionals most involved with the child and family, following a S47 enquiry. One purpose of this is to decide what future action is required to safeguard and promote the welfare of the child and how action will be taken and what the intended outcomes are. The core group members are I, Ms Webster, Mr Webster, Ms Gold (team manager), WPC Bond (family protection unit), Mr Perry (head teacher) and Ms Murray (EWO). All the above people involved will all play a part in monitoring and safeguarding the surrounding concerns for Charity. During the case conference I will be looking at recommending the following care plan: Behavioural support, some schools have these implemented by way of school mentor, this could help Charity with her aggression.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Anger management counselling for Ms Webster due to the domestic violence issues. Family Resource Centre for Ms Webster and Charity, this could help them both have contact with other families experiencing similar issues. Counselling for mum due to loss and separation and the children. Counselling for Charity to give her a chance to talk to someone about her experiences and how she feels. Charity spending quality time with her father and sisters. With the care plan identified, this can only go ahead if Ms Webster will give her consent as she has parental responsibility. The legislation I have used is Childrens Act 1989/2004 with S47-Duty to asses risk and S17-Duty to assess need. I have also used Working Together to Safeguard Children, this sets out clear guidelines for multi-agency working to protect children from abuse and neglect, this was needed in relation to Charity. I will now move on to theories and research. Neglect can have major long term effects on all aspects of a childs health, development and well-being. Maltreatment is likely to have a deeper on the childs self image and self esteem. Difficulties may lead on into adulthood and the experience of long term abuse could lead to difficulties in forming or maintaining close relationships, one of the skills needed to be an effective parent (DOH 2000). DOH 2000 also says that the child could have feelings of isolation and the feeling of being unloved. Stress could affect the parents capacity to respond to their childs needs. This relates to this case as Ms Webster is very stresses since her husband left her for another man. In relation to physical abuse and Charity witnessing this, this could be the reason as to why Charity is showing aggression towards people. Physical abuse has been linked to aggressive behaviour in children, emotional and behavioural problems (Working Together). Further research that relates to the case is the Attachment Theory because of Charitys relationship with her mum and vice versa. Bowlby believed that the primary caregiver is the mother. He said that children deprived of maternal care would nearly always be affected in some way. Bowlby (1953). However Ainsworth identified three types of attachment, securely attached, insecurely attached (avoidant) and securely attached (ambivalent). As its core, attachment theory is about the way that childhood needs are met and the long term effects of needs being met or otherwise. Ainsworth (1970). In my opinion I would say Charity is negatively attached. A criticism of Bowlby is that he says that the mother has to be the primary caregiver; this is open to much subjection. Children can have attachment figures other than them receiving it from their mother. In some cultures the childcare is shared, not only by mothers but by fathers, grandparents, aunts, uncles and friends Beckett, C, (2002). Anothe r criticism is that it is sexist, it tends to lead to maternal deprivation rather than paternal deprivation, it excuses absent fathers from any imitation of parenting skills. It ignores gender bias and how family make ups can change. This is significant in this case as Mr Webster left the family home. Theory on domestic violence is gendered natured in that, it ignores the facts that female to male violence is increasing. This is significant in this case because Mr Webster had suffered domestic violence issues with his wife. Charity also witnessed domestic violence. Helping victims and children to get protection from violence, by providing relevant practical and other assistance is one of the considerations to include when involved in a child protection case (Working Together pg 2004). There are contradictions within the legislative framework. The Children Act 1989 contravenes the Human Rights Act because S8 of the Human Rights act states that in absolute certainty children should not be removed from their family and the Children Act defines harm but not significant harm. The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families is not without contradiction. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation 1999, points out that it would be helpful to strengthen the assessment framework by stating that the responsibility of the local authority is not only to promote and safeguard the welfare of the child but also the rights of the child. Throughout my work I will continue to reflect on my practice and how my own values and assumptions may unconsciously affect my decisions.

A Closer Look At Cryptography Essay -- Writing Cryptography History Pa

A Closer Look At Cryptography Ever since the earliest days of writing, people have had reasons to limit their information to a restricted group of people. Because of this, these people have had to develop ideas of making their information unable to be read by unwanted people. The general techniques used to hide the meaning of messages constitute the study known as cryptography. "Ciphers, in general fall into three major classifications: 1. Concealment Cipher, 2. Transposition Cipher, and 3. Substitution Cipher" (4). Cryptography protects information by altering its form, making it unreadable to unwanted people or groups of people. Cryptography, from the Greek kryptos, meaning hidden, and graphei, meaning to write. The origins of secret writing can be traced back nearly four millennia to the hieroglyphic writing system of the Egyptians. References to cryptography are also made in the bible. "One of the oldest known examples is the Spartan scytale: Plutarch tells how Lacedaemonian generals exchanged messages by winding narrow ribbons of parchment spirally around a cylindrical staff. The message was then inscribed on the parchment. When the ribbon was unwound, the writing could be read only by the person who had a cylinder of exactly the same size, upon which to rewind it, so that the letters would reappear in their normal order" (5). During the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, interest in cryptography was very high. It was the custom in those days for important people, such as Mary of Stuart, the Charles I and II, and the Georges, to have private ciphers. During the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries, cryptology played a major role in the military, especially in WWI and WWII, because the sec... ...rom the National Energy Supply to Fort Knox. This is a fairly similar situation to that of WWI and WWII, in that whoever has control of the other side’s information, is in control of the war. I also think the challenge of trying to break someone else’s codes, a game of sorts, is very interesting. Works Cited: 1. "History of the Enigma." Russell Schwager. 18 Nov. 1998. <www.ugrad.cs.jhu.edu/~russell/classes/enigma/history.html> (12/8/99). 2. "The History of the German Enigma." Lech Maziakowski. 4 Dec. 1997. <www.members.aol.com/nbrass/enigma.htm> (12/8/99). 3. "RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adelman)." Fred Hazan and Frank Rundatz. 4 Dec. 1999. < http://www.whatis.com/rsa.htm> (12/ 10/99). 4. Gaines, Helen Fouche. Crytanalysis. New York: Dover, 1956. 5. Smith, Laurence Dwight. Cryptography. New York: Dover, 1955. 6. Peer Reviewer: Adam Fackler

A research proposal on contract strategies for projects in the subsea oil and gas industry Essay

Introduction In different subsea oil and gas projects developments, the award of large contracts for a variety of works is undertaken.   Nevertheless, the overall strategy for distributing these contracts to different contractors is the main issue regarding to contracting strategy. The recent researches on the field of contract strategies establish that the world is growing very fast technologically thus provoke the need for further exploration for sources of energy especially in subsea oil and gas industry. Furthermore, a profound increase in the projects complexity, increase in projects sizes as well as the intensified international engagements in related issues characterize oil and gas projects in the present world. Although these projects are based in the sea, it is argued by different scholars that construction processes have numerous groups of individuals and companies who get involved either as suppliers, buyers or as the real builders. To maintain and ensure ethical relationships among the various stakeholders contracts are formed.   A contract is a legal term that is either written or spoken as an agreement between two or more parties for the purpose of the delivery of particular services in return for money or any other valuable asset (Blum, 2007, p. 88). In projects related to subsea oil and gas engineering, the process and the character of contracting and presentation of projects contracts is of great significance for the future course of the project and as well for the general success of the project. As far as subsea oil and gas industry is concerned, contracts are the critical tolls for the allocation of tasks, risks and responsibilities. Most importantly, contracting strategies in the above discussed industry takes into account the division of responsibilities within the project cycle, the desired allocation of risks, splitting of engaged parties and services among the involved groups as well as taking into account the   interface and the market situation. Realistic selection of contracting strategies is the foundation of realization of goals and objectives of such projects. According to Blum (2007), it is of importance for involved stakeholders in such projects to have the awareness and knowledge about the particular characteristics of probable contracting strategies.   Contracting strategies refer to the strategies in all stages of a project that establish a level of integration in design, the actual construction and ongoing maintenance in a project and gives support to t he project in form of risk delivery, risk allocation and incentivisation. The Rationale of the Research Considering the increased exploration and initialization of subsea oil and gas exploration and extraction projects, it is of importance to acknowledge the significance of instigating effective and realistic contracting strategies, as they are key to the success of each and every projects. For this reason, it is important to bring into light various contracting strategies by discussing, exploring and analyzing the impacts of such strategies in subsea oil and gas engineering. It is in this respect that the research that will follow will go even deep to thrash out the advantages as well as the shortcomings of different contracting strategies with respect to various literatures in the specific field. Research issue As many comprehend, there has been very little in terms of research concerning contracting strategies especially in the subsea oil and gas sector.   Although few study this issue, many companies are investing in the industry probably ending up adopting one or several contracting strategies. It is therefore a major issue when the necessary research that can guide these companies in selecting the best approaches is unavailable. Research Aim The aim of this research will be to investigate various types of contract strategy used in the subsea oil and Gas Industries and the consideration made before choosing for a particular project. In addition, the research will provide insight in various concept of contracting strategies besides going deep to unclothe various strategies used in the subsea oil and gas industries. Furthermore, the research will explore, discus and determine the role of contract strategy in project management by comparing and evaluating their impacts on a project by applying cost reimbursable contract strategy and lump sum contract strategy. Finally, the study will materialize in identifying the benefits and disadvantages of the various types of contract strategies. The importance of the study On the event of the completion of this planned research,   it is anticipated that various stakeholders in subsea gas and oil industry will be provided with adequate   and vital information about contracting strategies in the field, their impacts on general project   performance, their advantage and disadvantages as well being equipped with information on the roles of various contracting strategies. Research questions To these ends, the study calls on the following research questions: What are the various types of contracting strategies used in the subsea oil and gas industry? What are the considerations made before choosing a contracting strategy? What are the roles of contracting strategies in the subsea oil and gas industry? What are the advantages and disadvantages of the discussed contracting strategies? The empirical part of the research examines the theoretical framework of the perspective of different contracting strategies, their effectiveness, their roles as well as the benefits and shortcomings that accrue as a result of their espousal. Literature review During the initial stages of any project, the main issue that faces the project management stakeholders is to make informed decisions on which contract strategies to adopt that best suits the project for successful achievement of the projects goals and objectives (Inkpen & Moffett, 2011, p. 187). According to Babusiaux (2007), contract strategy refers to the process or the endeavor to select an organizational or projects contractual policy that is required for the execution of specific projects within the major venture. Most importantly, a proper and effective contract strategy for a project especially the ones related to subsea oil and gas industry involves making of five critical and basic decisions that include; setting of the projects objectives and constraints and making of informed decisions on the selection of proper project delivery method. In addition deciding on selection of proper contract type as well as adopting realistic contract administrative mechanisms serves as a basis for triumphant selection of contracting strategies.   Nevertheless, in the subsea oil and gas engineering projects, a contract type is selected by the managers of the project through the advice of the projects engineers and his or her legal advisor. However, the selection in this case must meet the objectives and the goals of the project and be able to take into account the constraints that relate to the project. The objectives are in terms of the time objectives, functional performance, transfer of technology, use of local materials and resources, allocation and payment of risks as well as cost objectives among others. This lead to a reflective increase in the projects complexity, increase in projects sizes as well as the intensified international engagements. Essentially, there are different contracting strategies in subsea oil and gas industry. The contracting strategies include; Engineering Procurement and Construction (EPC) contracting strategy, Engineering Procurement and Construction with Long Lead Items (EPC with LLIs), Engineering, Procurement and Construction Management strategy (EPCM) as well as the Progressive Lump Sum (PLS) (Ross   & Williams, 2012, p. 236). As a matter of fact, the selection of a specific contracting strategy in the subsea oil and gas industry depends on the level of risk an owner of a project dares to undertake and in most cases it reflects the desired peril, the goal and the aspirations of the owner. For that reason, the specific features and factors of the particular project have to be handled with an in-depth analysis and compared to the characteristics of the respective strategy in a manner that provides a foundation for deciding and choosing on the most appropriate solution (Babusiaux, 2007, p. 116). As all this contracting strategies are based on the procurement process, it is basically known that supply chain in the industry of oil and gas has not been taken seriously for quite some time and this has resulted to significant drawbacks . Nevertheless, technological changes lead to the development of core values that aim only at fast exploration with consequent high production of oil and gas products. According to Piskarev & Shkatov (2012) before selecting a contracting strategy to implement, owners of subsea oil and gas projects should ensure that, they consider basic attributes that determine which effective strategy works best in particular environments. To maximize on this, the key factors to consider in such cases include; the type, the size and the location of the subsea industry.   Additionally, as mentioned in the overview, decisions should consider risk allocations, the projects interface, the time constraints   and the market structure among many other factors. References Inkpen, A. C., & Moffett, M. H. (2011). The global oil & gas industry: management,   Ã‚  Ã‚   strategy & finance. Tulsa, Okla, PennWell. Blum, B. A. (2007). Contracts: examples & explanations. Austin, Wolters Kluwer Law &   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Business Babusiaux, D. (2007). Oil and gas exploration and production: reserves, costs, contracts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Paris, France, Editions Technip. Piskarev, A., & Shkatov, M. (2012). Energy Potential of the Russian Arctic Seas Choice of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   development strategy. Burlington, Elsevier Science. Ross, A., & Williams, P. (2012). Financial Management in Construction Contracting.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Chicester, Wiley.

Mobile Phones Essay

â€Å"Cell Phone† redirects here. For the film, see Cell Phone (film). For the Handphone film, see Handphone (film). The Qualcomm QCP-2700, a mid-1990s candybar style phone, and an iPhone 5, a current production smartphone. A mobile phone is a device that can make and receive telephone calls over aradio link while moving around a wide geographic area. It does so by connecting to a cellular network provided by a mobile phone operator, allowing access to the public telephone network. By contrast, a cordless telephone is used only within the short range of a single, private base station. In addition to telephony, modern mobile phones also support a wide variety of other services such as text messaging, MMS, email, Internet access, short-range wireless communications, business applications, gaming and photography. Mobile phones that offer these and more general computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones. The first hand-held mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell[1][2][3] and Dr Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing around 2.2 pounds (1 kg).[4] In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first to be commercially available. From 1990 to 2011, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew from 12.4 million to over 6 billion, penetrating about 87% of the global population and reaching the bottom of the economic pyramid. ————————————————- History Main article: History of mobile phones An evolution of mobile phones Before the devices that are now referred to as mobile phones existed, there were some precursors. The development of mobile telephony began in 1918 with tests of wireless telephony on military trains between Berlin – Zossen.[9] In 1924 public trials started with telephone connection on trains between Berlin – Hamburg.[9] In 1925 Zugtelephonie A. G. is founded to supply train telephony equipment[9] and in 1926 telephone service in trains of theDeutsche Reichsbahn and imperial post on the route between Hamburg and Berlin is approved and used.[9] This phone service was only offered to 1st class travelers, but in 1918, some 5 years after the invention of Meissnerischen tube based transmitters, the German Reichsbahn in Berlin led experiments with telephony via radio. [10] The first mobile telephone calls were made from automobiles in 1946. The Bell System’s – Mobile Telephone Service – inaugural call was made on 17 June of that year in St. Louis, Missouri, followed by Illinois Bell Telephone Company’s car radiotelephone service in Chicago on 2 October. [11] The MTS phones were composed of vacuum tubes and relays, and weighed over 80 pounds (36 kg).[12][13] There were initially only 3 channels for all the users in the metropolitan area, increasing later to 32 channels across 3 bands. This service continued into the 1980s in large portions of North America. Due to the small number of radio frequencies available, the service quickly reached capacity. In 1956, the world’s first partly automatic car phone system, Mobile System A (MTA), was introduced in Sweden. John F. Mitchell, Motorola’s chief of portable communication products in 1973, played a key role in advancing the development of handheld mobile telephone equipment. Mitchell successfully pushed Motorola to develop wireless communication products that would be small enough to use anywhere and participated in the design of the cellular phone.[14][15] Martin Cooper, a Motorola researcher and executive, was the key researcher on Mitchell’steam that developed the first hand-held mobile telephone for use on a cellular network.[16] Using a somewhat heavy portable handset, Cooper made the first call on a handheld mobile phone on 3 April 1973 to his rival, Dr. Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs.[17][18] As I walked down the street while talking on the phone, sophisticated New Yorkers gaped at the sight of someone actually moving around while making a phone call. Remember that in 1973, there weren’t cordless telephones or cellular phones. I made numerous calls, including one where I crossed the street while talking to a New York radio reporter – probably one of the more dangerous things I have ever done in my life. —Martin Cooper, [19] The new invention sold for $3,995 and weighed two pounds, leading to the nickname â€Å"the brick†. The world’s first commercial automated cellular network was launched in Japan by NTT in 1979, initially in the metropolitan area of Tokyo. In 1981, this was followed by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden.[20] Several countries then followed in the early to mid-1980s including the UK, Mexico and Canada. On 6 March 1983, the DynaTAc mobile phone launched on the first US 1G network by Ameritech. It cost $100m to develop, and took over a decade to reach the market.[21] The phone had a talk time of just half an hour and took ten hours to charge. Consumer demand was strong despite the battery life, weight, and low talk time, and waiting lists were in the thousands.[22][23] In 1991, the second generation (2G) cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard, which sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators. Ten years later, in 2001, the third generation (3G) was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard.[24] This was followed by 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on thehigh-speed packet access (HSPA) family, allowing UMTS networks to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity. By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications like streaming media.[25] Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized 4th-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard (offered in the U.S. by Sprint) and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera. ————————————————- Read more:  Uses and Abuses of Mobile Phone Essay Features Main article: Mobile phone features See also: Smartphone A printed circuit board inside a Nokia 3210 All mobile phones have a number of features in common, but manufacturers also try to differentiate their own products by implementing additional functions to make them more attractive to consumers. This has led to great innovation in mobile phone development over the past 20 years. The common components found on all phones are: * A battery, providing the power source for the phone functions. * An input mechanism to allow the user to interact with the phone. The most common input mechanism is a keypad, but touch screens are also found in some high-end smartphones. * Basic mobile phone services to allow users to make calls and send text messages. * All GSM phones use a SIM card to allow an account to be swapped among devices. Some CDMA devices also have a similar card called a R-UIM. Individual GSM, WCDMA, iDEN and some satellite phone devices are uniquely identified by an International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number. Low-end mobile phones are often referred to as feature phones, and offer basic telephony. Handsets with more advanced computing ability through the use of native software applications became known as smartphones. Several phone series have been introduced to address a given market segment, such as the RIM BlackBerry focusing on enterprise/corporate customer email needs; the Sony-Ericsson ‘Walkman’ series of music/phones and ‘Cybershot’ series of camera/phones; the Nokia Nseries of multimedia phones, the Palm Pre the HTC Dream and the Apple iPhone. Text messaging Main article: SMS The most commonly used data application on mobile phones is SMS text messaging. The first SMS text message was sent from a computer to a mobile phone in 1992 in the UK, while the first person-to-person SMS from phone to phone was sent in Finland in 1993. The first mobile news service, delivered via SMS, was launched in Finland in 2000, and subsequently many organizations provided â€Å"on-demand† and â€Å"instant† news services by SMS. SIM card Main articles: Subscriber Identity Module and Removable User Identity Module Typical mobile phone SIM card GSM feature phones require a small microchip called a Subscriber Identity Module or SIM Card, to function. The SIM card is approximately the size of a small postage stamp and is usually placed underneath the battery in the rear of the unit. The SIM securely stores the service-subscriber key (IMSI) and the Ki used to identify and authenticate the user of the mobile phone. The SIM card allows users to change phones by simply removing the SIM card from one mobile phone and inserting it into another mobile phone or broadband telephony device. The first SIM card was made in 1991 by Munich smart card maker Giesecke & Devrient for the Finnish wireless network operatorRadiolinja.[citation needed] In general Mobile phone subscribers per 100 inhabitants 1997–2007 A cellphone repair kiosk in Mumbai, India Mobile phones are used for a variety of purposes, including keeping in touch with family members, conducting business, and having access to a telephone in the event of an emergency. Some people carry more than one cell phone for different purposes, such as for business and personal use. Multiple SIM cards may also be used to take advantage of the benefits of different calling plans—a particular plan might provide cheaper local calls, long-distance calls, international calls, or roaming. The mobile phone has also been used in a variety of diverse contexts in society, for example: * A study by Motorola found that one in ten cell phone subscribers have a second phone that often is kept secret from other family members. These phones may be used to engage in activities including extramarital affairs or clandestine business dealings.[38] * Some organizations assist victims of domestic violence by providing mobile phones for use in emergencies. They are often refurbished phones.[39] * The advent of widespread text messaging has resulted in the cell phone novel; the first literary genre to emerge from the cellular age via text messaging to a website that collects the novels as a whole.[40] * Mobile telephony also facilitates activism and public journalism being explored by Reuters and Yahoo![41] and small independent news companies such as Jasmine New in Sri Lanka. * The United Nations reported that mobile phones have spread faster than any other technology and can improve the livelihood of the poorest people in developing countries by providing access to information in places where landlines or the Internet are not available, especially in the least developed countries. Use of mobile phones also spawns a wealth of micro-enterprises, by providing work, such as selling airtime on the streets and repairing or refurbishing handsets.[42] * In Mali and other African countries, people used to travel from village to village to let friends and relatives know about weddings, births and other events, which are now avoided within mobile phone coverage areas, which is usually greater than land line penetration. * The TV industry has recently started using mobile phones to drive live TV viewing through mobile apps, advertising, social tv, and mobile TV.[43] 86% of Americans use their mobile phone while watching TV. * In parts of the world, mobile phone sharing is common. It is prevalent in urban India, as families and groups of friends often share one or more mobiles among their members. There are obvious economic benefits, but often familial customs and traditional gender roles play a part.[44] It is common for a village to have access to only one mobile phone, perhaps owned by a teacher or missionary, but available to all members of the village for necessary calls.[45] While driving Main article: Mobile phones and driving safety Texting in stop-and-go traffic in New York City Mobile phone use while driving is common but controversial. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of accident. Because of this, many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal and Singapore ban both handheld and hands-free use of a mobile phone; others —including the UK, France, and many U.S. states—ban handheld phone use only, allowing hands-free use. Due to the increasing complexity of mobile phones, they are often more like mobile computers in their available uses. This has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials in distinguishing one usage from another as drivers use their devices. This is more apparent in those countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those who have banned handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the mobile phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally on a phone call when, in fact, they were using the device for a legal purpose such as the phone’s incorporated controls for car stereo or satnav. A recently published study has reviewed the incidence of mobile phone use while cycling and its effects on behaviour and safety.[48] In schools Some schools limit or restrict the use of mobile phones. Schools have set restrictions because of the use of cell phones for cheating on tests, harassment and bullying, threats to the school’s security, distraction of students, and the facilitating of gossip and other social activity at school. Many mobile phones are banned in school locker room facilities, public restrooms and swimming pools due to the built-in cameras that most phones now feature. Mobile banking and payments Main articles: Mobile banking and Mobile payment See also: Branchless banking and Contactless payment In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide mobile banking services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya’s M-PESA mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator Safaricom to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash may be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country, and may be transferred electronically from person to person as well as used to pay bills to companies. Branchless banking has also been successful in South Africa and Philippines. A pilot project in Bali was launched in 2011 by the International Finance Corporation and an Indonesian bank Bank Mandiri.[49] Another application of mobile banking technology is Zidisha, a US-based nonprofit microlending platform that allows residents of developing countries to raise small business loans from web users worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to the borrowers in rural Africa using the internet and mobile phones.[50] Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in Espoo were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999 the Philippines launched the first commercial mobile payments systems, on the mobile operators Globe and Smart. Some mobile phone can make mobile payments via direct mobile billing schemes or through contactless payments if the phone and point of sale support near field communication (NFC).[51] This requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators and retail merchants to enable contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones.[52][53][54] Tracking and privacy See also: Mobile phone tracking Mobile phones are also commonly used to collect location data. While the phone is turned on, the geographical location of a mobile phone can be determined easily (whether it is being used or not), using a technique known as multilateration to calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the cell phone to each of several cell towers near the owner of the phone. The movements of a mobile phone user can be tracked by their service provider and, if desired, by law enforcement agencies and their government. Both the SIM card and the handset can be tracked.[55] China has proposed using this technology to track commuting patterns of Beijing city residents.[57] In the UK and US, law enforcement and intelligence services use mobiles to perform surveillance. They possess technology to activate the microphones in cell phones remotely in order to listen to conversations that take place near the phone. [58][59] Thefts According to the Federal Communications Commission, one out of three robberies involved the theft of a cellular phone. Police data in San Francisco showed that one-half of all robberies in 2012 were thefts of cellular phones. An online petition on Change.org called Secure our Smartphones urged smartphone manuacturers to install kill switches in their devices to make them unusable in case of theft. The petition is part of a joint effort by New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman and San Francisco District Attorney George Gascon and was directed to the CEOs of the major smartphone manufacturers and telecommunication carriers. [60] On Monday, June 10, 2013, Apple announced it would install a kill switch on its next iPhone operating system, due to debut in October 2013. [61] ————————————————- Health effects Main article: Mobile phone radiation and health Further information: Mobile phones on aircraft The effect mobile phone radiation has on human health is the subject of recent interest and study, as a result of the enormous increase in mobile phone usage throughout the world. Mobile phones use electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range, which some believe may be harmful to human health. A large body of research exists, both epidemiological and experimental, innon-human animals and in humans, of which the majority shows no definite causative relationship between exposure to mobile phones and harmful biological effects in humans. This is often paraphrased simply as the balance of evidence showing no harm to humans from mobile phones, although a significant number of individual studies do suggest such a relationship, or are inconclusive. Other digital wireless systems, such as data communication networks, produce similar radiation. On 31 May 2011, the World Health Organization stated that mobile phone use may possibly represent a long-term health risk,[62][63] classifying mobile phone radiation as â€Å"possibly carcinogenic to humans† after a team of scientists reviewed studies on cell phone safety.[64] Mobile phones are in category 2B, which ranks it alongside Coffee and other possibly carcinogenic substances.[65][66] At least some recent studies have found an association between cell phone use and certain kinds of brain and salivary gland tumors. Lennart Hardell and other authors of a 2009 meta-analysis of 11 studies from peer-reviewed journals concluded that cell phone usage for at least ten years â€Å"approximately doubles the risk of being diagnosed with a brain tumor on the same (‘ipsilateral’) side of the head as that preferred for cell phone use.† [67] One study of past cell phone use cited in the report showed a â€Å"40% increased risk for gliomas (brain cancer) in the highest category of heavy users (reported average: 30 minutes per day over a 10†year period).†[68] This is a reversal from their prior position that cancer was unlikely to be caused by cellular phones or their base stations and that reviews had found no convincing evidence for other health effects.[63][69] Certain countries, including France, have warned against the use of cell phones especially by minors due to health risk uncertainties.[70] However, a study published 24 March 2012 in the British Medical Journal questioned these estimates, because the increase in brain cancers has not paralleled the increase in mobile phone use. Dis-advantages : * Some people (especially teens) get so much addicted to cell phones for talking, video, messaging, games, etc that they forget the real purpose of the phone and waste large part of their time in unnecessary interaction over their cell phones. * Nothing more can be a distraction for a teached in the classroom, when a student’s phone rings. Cell phones are increasingly becoming a problem for the schools during classroom hours and are becoming a means of cheating during examinations and other kinds of ability tests. All this is really bad and does hurt the future of the student, who doesn’t realize that he/she is him/her-self responsible for it. * Health of those living in the vicinity of cell phone towers is becoming a growing concern. Towers result into an area with concrete development along with destruction of natural features (vegetation etc) around the place. The towers also emit strong electromagnetic signals, which can be health hazard for those living nearby and who are getting exposed to strong radiations continuously during a good span of their lives. * While remaining in touch is good thing but sometimes it becomes annoying to have to deal with continuous incoming phone calls. You are on a vacation and your boss calls up, how does that sound! * Cell phone monthly bills are usually more than a landline bill. Sometimes, we may not require to have a cell phone but we still buy one and start paying monthly bills; so it increases our monthly/recurring expenses. * Use of hands-free (wired/blue-tooth) can at times pass on loud sounds to our ears which can result in weakening of ear-drums. Nowadays, one can download lot’s of songs, so keeping the hands-free glued inside your ears for long hours can really affect the sensitivity of ears in the long run of life. * There have been cases of cell phone blasts, due to the excessive heating up of it’s battery. This can be a fatal issue; although rare. * No joke, the surface of a cell phone has millions of bacteria and virus on it and that can be a strong reason of immediate skin p roblem on face or can result into other internal infections wherein the microbes creep inside the body through mouth or other openings. * Some use the keypad excessively; due to size restrictions the buttons and keypad of the cell phone are not natural for human hands; so excessive and prolonged typing can be an issue for fingers and finger joints. * The continuous exposure of signal to and from our cell phone can be a cancer concern, although to a meagre amount- research is still going on. However, the mobile phone industry has long resisted any suggestion of a link to cancer, though it accepts that mobile phone radiation does affect the electrical activity in the brain. * The battery parts and other electonic parts of a cell phone can be environmental hazard if not disposed off properly through approved means. * A cell phone can be helpful while driving and talking in case of urgent matters but increasingly it is becoming cause of accidents because it deviates the attention of a driver; human brain can do only one thing at a time (however small span of time it may be). * It can be a big time distraction and nuisance in calm and silent places like libraries, cinemas, restaruants, etc. Some cell phone users lose the sense of deciding when and where they can talk on the cell phone and where they can’t, without slightest consideration for the fellow beings around. * The mobile phone advertisements through messages are becoming a pain for the cell phone users. * Your SIM can be exploited as tracking device and if you’re an important person then that can be a big concern for you. Advantages : * The more you talk, the more you know how to talk and the better your communication skills become. This is applicable if you’re a sensible person and keep note of your interacting habits over the phone. It can be a communication tutorial! * Nothing more than a cell phone comes to great help in emergency. You are driving by the freeway and the vehicle jams and cell phone comes to your rescue. You are stuck in a lone place, again call somebody and ask for directions. * Parents can be a little less worried about their kids by being in constant touch with them. * If you’re a net-savvy, you can have Internet handy all the time and anywhere the signal of your cell phone provider can reach. * Trendy and stylish cell phones can be used as a bait to receive attention. It can be part of fashion and styling. * From the industy and economy point of view, cell phone companies (communication industry) is flourishing with market capital in billions. This is a good thing for the economy to be smooth and healthy. * Companies find it yet another medium to advertise their products; so another medium to reach the consumers. * Nowadays, cell phones are not just phone calls; they’re about messaging, video, songs, games, alarm clock, notes, calendar, reminder, etc. So one equipment, lots’ of uses! * Although cell phone use can be dangerous while driving but sometimes it can be a time-saver – you are driving and simultaneously discussing some urgent matter as well. A sensible and only urgent usage during driving can be a great help at times.

How Do People Labelled With A Mental Illness Deal with Their Stigmatization

How Do People Labelled With A Mental Illness Deal with Their Stigmatization Introduction Erving Goffman (1963, p. 3) was the man who originally described stigmatization as it applied to different situations. In his book titled Stigma: Noted on the Management of Spoilt Identity, he was able to define stigma and explain the way it applied and affected the stigmatized people.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on How Do People Labelled With A Mental Illness Deal with Their Stigmatization? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This book was the pioneer of a profuse research about the disease’s nature, the causes, implication on the victim and the impact of stigma. Since the seminal essay of Goffman’s studies on stigma, research on the same issue has been very productive. Consequently the studies provide a number of important elaborations, continual expression and fine-tuning of the concepts that related to stigma and the mental health patients. Literally, the concept of stigma can be applied to different scores of situations ranging from mental illness, urinary incontinence, pregnancy outside marriage, lesbianism, being in debt and even foreign dancing!. Amidst this profusion of investigation and studies, it is imperative to understand why the stigma concept exists, why it still has implications on mentally ill people, explore its effects pervasiveness and persistence on mentally ill people. The definition The term stigma had been in use since ancient times referring to mark left by pricking. This was initially adapted to mark slaves and identify them as having a lower social status in the society. The same has been transferred into modern world to people suffering different conditions. The terms were originally and officially defined by Goffman in 1963 as the attribute which deeply discredits an individual or a group of people (Goffman 1963, p. 3). The issue of stigmatization has been of particular interest to the sociologists, since its impact causes significant loss to the victims especially the social status where stigmatization is evident. Actually, Bruce Link and Jo Phelan, 2001, note that the consequences are the immediate aftermath of negative labelling and prejudice. In most cases the loss of social status quo is a downward placement of an individual (Link Phelan 2001, p. 371). Researchers have observed that the impact of that kind of loss also leads to loss of jobs, housing, and even breaking of a marriage (Link et al 2004, p. 511). Link and Phelan (2001), notes that the reason why a person would discriminate another is because of inadequate explanation of the consequences of the stigmatization, (p. 372). First, prejudice on an individual happens because of blatant rejection of the stigmatized people.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Second, the organization and the daily patterns of the social institutions describe struct ural discrimination and then reduce the chances of the stigmatized people to advance (Goffman 1963, p. 3). Third, stigmatization could be manifest via social-psychological processes happening in the life of the victims. For instance, self-esteem is greatly affected (Link Phelan 2001, p. 274). Concept of Stigma The study of the stigmatization is often faced with some hitches especially of the exhaustive description of the concept of stigmatization. Most of the investigators prefer to use the Goffman’s description and the idea that this reduces the status of a person to a lower level individual (Goffman 1963, p. 4). There are five presumptions of the important to understand basically a biological issue, the problems of the disabled are because of the disability, the disabled individual is victimized, the disability is a core concept in the definition and the presence of the disability is synonymous with requiring assistance of social support (Corrigan et al. 2002). Mental Heal th The phenomenon of stigmatization was explored by Goffman where he mentioned physical deformities, medical conditions, behaviours of certain kind, prejudice against a tribe, and religion among other things (Goffman 1963, p. 6). Individuals who possess stigmatizing characteristics could face problems of respect, consideration and acceptance. Mental health is the most prejudiced condition and it has undergone extensive research where most of the projects have sought to explore the occurrence of the problems and the reason why there is so much stigmatization against it (Goffman, 1963, p. 7). However, not much has been researched concerning how the victims actually deal with this form of prejudice. Communication with the mental health suffers and survivors show that the issues are not sufficiently dealt with. The stigmatized individuals on the other hand talk of having experienced very painful conditions when they are excluded, despised, rejected and separated in a number of day-to-da y encounters (Link et al. 2004, p. 511). Even though many people talk of their friends, family members, colleagues, neighbours and bosses, these stories mostly point at the mental health service system as the main cause of then discrimination (Link et al. 2004, p. 511). Even with all these, there is still very little concerning the victims survival tactics.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on How Do People Labelled With A Mental Illness Deal with Their Stigmatization? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More How Labelled People Handle the Situations Some progress has been made concerning the elimination of stigma of mental sickness on the victims. The cause of the stigma initially comes with labelling. The mentally sick people have often been referred to as ‘psychos’ or ‘schizos’. Sometimes the labelling extends to jokes even on television referring to these people as ‘loony bins’ and so o n. However, when one is actually suffering some form of mental sickness, then these works are not just jokes or gimmicks, rather they are perpetuating the stigma related to the mental health condition (Link Phelan 2001, p. 375). The individual feels ashamed and very emotionally hurt. Even so, there are some ways that these prejudiced individuals use to cope. Stigma can make an individual hungry or upset and it can still result in misunderstanding from the public with regard to this medical condition. Stigma is putting a mark on an individual with mental illness as in this context (Link Phelan 2001, p. 377). Therefore any stereotyping, calling of names, creating some divisions and excluding from some groups based on their condition amounts to discrimination and therefore stigmatization. It has been observed that while people may not find it easy to mock a person suffering from some form of disease like breast cancers, they easily tend to ridicule mentally ill people often and they find it very funny. Stigma against the men tally sick versus the physically handicapped is evident. The term mental illness itself is an indication that the medical condition is not in the physical body but the brain. Therefore some people do not take it as a legitimate condition therefore they do not regard is on the same level as the physical illness. Rather they look at it as a choice by an individual based on their actions. The sick people are blamed for allowing the condition in their heads. In reality, the problem is caused by very complex factors and in most cases they range from the combination of genetics, the physiology make up of the person and the life experiences. Most of these conditions are beyond the control of the individuals. To survive these prejudice, the stigmatized individual resort to a number of options that help them to survive and eliminated the stigma. Some people usually accept the label as being called ‘Psycho’ or ‘loony’ or any other label for that matter (Heitzeg 1996, p. 350).Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As a result they adopt to live with these negative names and they are accepted in the society as insane people and hence they feel the stigma is reduced. Many people choose this alternative so as to reduce the rejection in the society or to try and reduce discrimination (Heitzeg 1996, p. 350). This tactic draws less attention to them and they survive the world. Goffman suggest that the stigmatized individuals could respond to the same situation in different ways. The response is based on individual beliefs. Some could even act in certain ways to show stigmatization by the mere fact that they believe they have a problem (Oetzel et al. 2006, p. 117). Some people could even try to pass or to conceal their problem from other people and the society at large so that they appear to be ‘normal’. Other people on the other hand, some people could attempt top â€Å"cover† or reduce the significance of the condition they are facing (Williams Healy 2001, p. 112). There are s ome cases where the stigmatized persons choose to reject the discrimination from the society especially the negative discrimination and then they redefine the discrimination in a positive way (Williams Healy 2001, p. 112). They in turn show pride and show off the stigma to be seen by everyone instead of hiding their condition from the public. For instance, a person who has ever suffered from mental illness and is now stigmatized by the idea that once crazy always crazy could take up a more activist role by leading and organisation that fights for the rights of mentally ill people (Heitzeg 1996, p. 356). Or on the other hand such an individual can take up the role of educating the public concerning the condition by giving presentations to the community, various organizations and so on. This education strategy can help the society to understand the condition better and how to deal with the condition. As a result, they can be able to provide more supportive roles (Heitzeg 1996, p. 356 ). Being labelled is a problem in the society especially when the society makes the label to be a very negative condition. The label affects socialization of the people and they get social isolation to a point that they can even fail to find marriage partners in life. The stigmatized individuals tend to keep away from the active societal participation so that they do not expose they deficiencies (Thompson et al. 2004, p. 530). As a result, they are often passive community or society members and they can silently suffer the stereotyping or the discriminatory behaviour. For instance, many theories on how people relate show that their relationships only come from or are instigated by physical and other external factors of which individual have no control over. Sometimes the impact of illness can affect crucial bodily function like reducing the sexual functioning when the individual perceive that they will always face rejection (Hinshaw Stier 2008 p. 371). Stigmatized individuals are a ble to develop survival strategies which include adaptation where they intentionally withdraw from other people so that they can protect themselves from situations that can cause identity threats (Phillips et al. 2002, p. 492). People suffering from mental illnesses on average have been found to also suffer depression and very low self esteem compared to the normal population. Because of isolation, they also suffer lack of social skills of which they can develop good relationships with others (Satche, 2000, p. 32). Conclusion Many people suffering mental illness often manifest by showing misplaced or irrational fear of others. Because of the problems, these people are not able to maintain relationships, they isolate themselves, they cannot easily adapt to change and they suffer emotionally progressively. However, those who adapt positively to the condition, they are able to overcome the stigma and become even prominent people and educators and activists. They grow their self esteem and get empowered by being mentally ill. Reference List Corrigan PW, et al., 2002. Challenging Two Mental Illness Stigmas: Personal Responsibility and Dangerousness. Schizophr Bull, Vol. 28, pp. 293–310 Goffman, E., 1963, Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Heitzeg, N. A., 1996, Deviance: Rulemakers Rulebreakers. St.Paul, MN: West Publishing Company. Hinshaw, S. P., Stier, A., 2008. Stigma as Related To Mental Disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, Vol. 4, pp. 367–393 Link, B., et al., 2004. Measuring Mental Illness Stigma. Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 30, pp. 511–41. Link, B. G., Phelan, J. C., 2001. Conceptualizing Stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 27, pp. 363–85 Oetzel, J., Duran, B., Lucero, J., Jiang, Y. 2006. Rural American Indians’ Perspectives Of Obstacles In The Mental Health Treatment Process In Three Treatment Sectors. Psychological Services, Vol. 2, pp. 117 œ128. Phillips, M. R., et al., 2002. Stigma and Expressed Emotion: A Study of People with Schizophrenia and Their Family Members in China. Bri J Psychiatry, Vol. 181, No. 488–493 Satcher, D. 2000. Mental Health Gets Noticed. Psychology Today, Vol. 33, No. 1, p. 32. Thompson, V., Noel, J. G., Campbell, J., 2004. Stigmatization, Discrimination, and Mental Health: The Impact of Multiple Identity Status. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 74, No. 4, pp. 529–544 Williams, B., Healy, D., 2001. Disclosure of Minor Mental Health Problems: An Exploratory Theoretical Study. Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 108-116

Utilitarianism and Animal Testing Essay

Utilitarianism and Animal Testing Essay A Tragedy of Animal Testing Essay A Tragedy of Animal Testing Essay Animal testing has been the most controversial and frequently debated topics around the globe. It is also known as animal experimentation, which is usually done to determine toxicity, effectiveness, side effects, and dosage of drugs intended to be used for human treatment. There are two opinions on this question – for and against one. However, the amount of people, who are against of animal testing is larger, and animal advocates beat an alarm for the scopes of animal use in testing. This research paper presents arguments against animal testing and provides evidence that there are alternative methods of tests. In addition, the survey of 22 respondents was conducted in order to support the viewpoint. Despite the fact that a lot of steps are taken in order to decrease the number of dying animals, there should be more efforts made towards total refusal of animal use in testing. Painful Human Experiments on Animals Every year, millions of lives, â€Å"wild world† are taken by painful human experiments. Experimental animals are burned, scalded, poisoned, and staved, subjected to electrical discharges and habituated to drugs. While carrying out a study, scientists induce in animals various diseases such as syphilis, diabetes, arthritis, stomach ulcers, cancer, and AIDS. In experiments for the military purposes, animals are poisoned by gas, cyanide, shot with plastic bullets, and shells. This practice is called vivisection (experiments on living animals: from the Latin words vivus, â€Å"lively,† and section, â€Å"dissecting.† It is originated in the middle of the XVII century, and today represents one of the black spots on the conscience of mankind since cruel experiments on animals continue to be produced on an industrial scale (Fano, 1997). The concept of animal testing remains controversial among different researchers. Some argue that it is immoral to use animals such as rats, mice, frogs, and other millions of animals for such experiments. In fact, animal experiment attracts sharp and diverse reactions between the opponents and proponents. More so, the notable differences are between animal welfare champions and scientists. According to the European Union data, the majority of animals are killed in medical research (65%). Fundamental researches (including military, space ones, etc.) occupy 26%, toxicity tests (cosmetics, new industrial compounds) 8%, the sphere of education 1 %. 85% of animal experiments conducted over the past 100 years, are carried in the period from fall 1950; however, the average life expectancy for this period has not changed much, but the amount and danger of chronic diseases continues to grow (Fano, 1997). The recent scandal with the largest German medical concern Bayer manufacturer of pharmaceuticals, has once again proved that the difference occurring in the human and animal processes makes testing drugs on animals meaningless (Combes et al., 2003). For example, thalidomide was tested successfully on animals and introduced into the drug market in 1956 and later turned out to be ineffective and dangerous. Thalidomide was widely used by expectant women to counter nausea, a vom iting sickness associated with pregnancy (Badge, 2003). In fact, the long term effect of thalidomide was reported as very dangerous, and it was associated with numerous birth defects in children. Though it was banned in 1961, roughly 15,000 victims were affected, and others died (Badge, 2003). Another typical example of medication that proved successful in animals but failed in human beings was the use of Vioxx as an anti-arthritis drug. This drug was widely tested on animals and humans and later approved by over 70 regulatory agencies across the world. It was later discovered that Vioxx drug caused the heart attack, which led to its withdrawal from the market in 2004. Statistical analysis indicates that out of 80 million cases of heart attack, the drug caused between 88,000 and 139,000 cases with roughly 35 percent of these cases leading to death (Hofer et. al., 2004). From this analogy, it can be concluded that only a few animals are used in testing drugs that are consumed by billions of patients. As a result, the process may not reveal certain side effects that may affect hundreds or thousands of consumers (Watson, 2009). Modern medicine has up to 150 drugs that have been tested on animals and proved to be unsuitable for human beings. Analysis of the achievements of modern medicine has shown that progress is related to clinical observations of patients and not to experiments on animals. Such results showed clinical trials of hepatitis, rheumatism, fever, ulcerative colitis, thyroid disease, and other. The so-called â€Å"war against cancer,† which has begun in 1971, still has no visible success, although the cost experiment with animals exceeded $ 1 billion per year in the U.S. What is more, all the conducted experiments on AIDS issue have been unsuccessful as well (Fano, 1997). Medication requires huge financial costs, which could be successfully spend on persuading people to adopt healthy lifestyles. Before the pharmacy counter is turned on medicines undergo numerous tests on animals within 15-20 years. At this stage of early clinical trials, 90 % of the products are rejected (Combes et al., 2003). Today, a number of centers stand for the development of alternatives to animal experiments. Embryo eggs, bacteria, physicochemical model of cell culture as well as computer model can be used as an alternative for animals in clinical trials. These methods are cheaper, more effective, rapid, and allow the identification of the toxicity of the test drugs on a deeper level –cellular and subcellular (Fano, 1997). In addition, animals are tested not only for medical purposes cosmetics, construction materials, and packaging, the novel compounds produced by industry are also the spheres where vivisection is widely used. Animals breathe vapors from the substance, which concentration is so high that most of them die of poisoning. The most widespread industrial Draize test for cosmetics has the following procedure: the tested product is applied to the rabbit cornea, than the examiner waits until the damage to the cornea occurs. Immobilized rabbit cannot rub the eye, corroded by coated material (Watson, 2009). The animal is released from torment only after opacification and the destruction of the eye. At the end of the experiment, all rabbits are killed in order to determine the effect of toxic substances inside. Another kind of this test is skin irritation: immobilized animal is shaved and the product is applied to damaged skin. Skin damage is performed by tightly clutching the tape to the body of the animal and tearing it sharply. This procedure is repeated several times till several layers of the skin are torn. As it can be seen, these tests are inhuman and animals are subjected to cruel abuse (Combes et. al., 2003). Experimental animals are also used during the education process. Although most medical school graduates will never work with animals, students are forced to carry painful trials on animals (Watson, 2009). Experiments on frogs do not cause so strong perturbations in the society as experiments on dogs or cats do. Many people judge the animal pain in its attempts to escape or scream, but rodents and birds, for example, may fade when they hurt, frogs cry when they feel threatened. One can only imagine what feels an amphibian, which is pinned to a piece of rubber and cut the skin on the breast in order to see how the heart beats. However, some arguments have also been in support of animal experiments. For example, the diabetes disease became treatable after the insulin hormone elimination from pancreas of cows and pigs (Watson, 2009). Researchers must always carry out experiments; however, it will be vital to look for alternative methods that will help reduce the immense use of animals. The reason is that animals have a wider range of similarities in terms of physiological, organ, and tissue system to humans. The similarity between animals and humans outweigh the differences (Fowler Miller, 2008). Such scientists further argue that certain nature of studies work better and faster in animals than in humans. For instance, genetic and reproductive experiments is less time consuming in animals such as rats, which mature and reproduce faster than humans (Parel, Roberts, Khan 2007). To respond to the ethical issues surrounding animal testing, proponents of the experiment argue that researchers give maximum care to the animals and handle them in a friendly manner. Although they are introduced to the new environment, they are always handled with special care. In response to death and injury of animals during research, proponents argue that it is better to use animals than humans. They declare that killing a human being is considered more unethical than killing animals (Watson, 2009). Animals for experiments come from zoos, specialized nurseries or are bred in special conditions. There are companies engaged in breeding of rodents. There are those who grow about a half million of species per year while the animals are grown under conditions that are not in contact with any viruses. Other companies are suppliers of birds infected with certain diseases: obese guinea pigs, which have no immune system, primates suffering from hemophilia, etc. Many primates are caught in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, China, South America, and Africa (Watson, 2009). In some cases, only one or two of the ten monkeys caught during transport to the laboratory survive. Many species are now threatened with extinction because of this practice. From 1954 to 1960, more than half a million of primates from around the world paid their freedom and their lives for their contribution to testing vaccines against polio. The U.S. is the largest supplier of primates: 13 to 17,000 species per year (Fano, 1997). One of the most solid explanations of animal testing cannot be considered as the valid test. The thing is that there are huge physiological differences between humans and any animal, including monkeys, which are considered as human ancestors. From a medical standpoint, it is absolutely impossible to draw a parallel between man and any animal in question of influence of the drug or its components on the body in general or on a specific individual (Combes et al., 2003). Human beings are different from other animals; drugs being safe for human are extremely dangerous for certain experimental animals and vice versa (Parel, Roberts, Khan, 2007). Moreover, even among the experimental animals, there is no one and concise effect what harms mice or guinea pigs has no effect on cats or monkeys. Here are just a few examples of this â€Å"incompatibility.† Strychnine, a poisonous substance for humans, is quietly tolerated by guinea pigs and monkeys in large doses, and for chickens in a tenfold increase of the dose. Atropine can kill a human even at 1 mg amount while its effect on the horses, donkeys, and monkeys is not harmful; pigeons, rats, and guinea pigs did not even react to the presence of this substance in the body. One or two hundred grams of scopolamine do no harm a dog or cat, but even half a gram of this substance can cause death in humans. Opium has no effect on chickens and pigeons, and morphine is dangerous for them only in very large quantities, which cannot be said about cats. However, both these substances are widely used in medicine (Fano, 1997). A human being can go blind from methyl alcohol, and it will not cause any harm to â€Å"experimental† animals. Some human painkillers cause profuse salivation incredibly when taken by a cat, and it gives occasion to look her fury. The difference between organisms is so great that all experiments performed with different animals can fundamentally contradict each other, and be absolutely not applicable to humans (Fano, 1997). The close look to modern medicines shows that many vital medicines would never have gotten a right to exist if they were tested on animal. For example, the most widespread antibiotic substance – penicillin would not ever exist if Alexander Fleming had not given it to his patient, despite the fact that this substance had shown no positive results when tested on animals (Combes, 2003). However, the situation is not as horrible as it seems to be. There are lots of organizations dealing with animal testing problem. Many countries created the set of laws regulation animal use in the products testing. In 1985, the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) introduced the Code of Ethics containing recommendations for the international biomedical research using animals. In the European Union, in 1986, the Council of Europe adopted the European Convention for the Protection of Animals used for Experimental and other Scientific Purposes and the Council Directive of the European Economic Community for the protection of animals in experiments. They reflect all the main provisions of the Code of Ethics CIOMS. In Italy, in 1993, a law was passed, according to which schools were obliged to provide biomedical profile opportunity for the individual willing to study alternative programs, excluding animal experiments. This law was adopted under pressure fro m the public; in particular, social student organization EuroNICHE actively opposed the use of painful experiments on animals in the learning process and students’ right to receive education without biomedical animal abuse that was supported by numerous animal protection societies. In the United Kingdom, Law on Protection of experimental animals was introduced in 1986. The law provides the implementation of state control over experiments on animals, which is carried by Committee procedures on animals under the Ministry of the Interior. The Committee is formed of scientists, who have extensive experience working with animals, animal advocates and representatives. In the U.S.A., Protection Act for experimental animals was adopted in 1985. The law provides the establishment of ethics committees at each institution that uses animals. Ethical committees hold public control of experiments on animals. They are composed of a veterinarian and independent members. Ethics committees mon itor compliance with the provisions of the law, for example, animal welfare, the use of painkillers, and antistress drugs (Fano, 1997). The experiments on animals in the developed countries adhere to the â€Å"Three R†: replacement, reduction, and refinement. It was first proposed in 1959. After improving, it has become increasingly accepted in Europe and America, its position is the basis for laws to protect experimental animals. The concept involves the use of tissue culture cells, the models of isolated organs (e.g., an eyeball), sections of tissues (skin, cornea, kidneys, etc.), and complex biochemical models (e.g., layered model of the cornea, in which skin and eyes, special microporous substrates culture corneal cells as well as human and animal skin are used, they imitated the epidermis and deeper layers) instead of laboratory animals (Watson, 2009). Application of â€Å"three R† rule resulted in revision for the system of education in schools and veterinary biomedical profile in Europe and the United States. The learning process should be built so that animals are used only if necessary. The tra ining process should be provided with animal testing alternatives: working with cadaveric material and dummies, videos and computer models, special training programs. Most of the necessary practical training with animals should be carried out as a demonstration, and only when the training requires obtaining special skills. As it can be seen, despite the fact that all these laws and acts were adopted relatively long time ago, the amount of animals killed due to the cosmetic, education, medical, and chemical need did not significantly decreased. Positive shift in experimental animals’ protection became possible because of social activity of animal advocates. People refused to buy such products and protested. The question of animal testing was even raised in cinematography, for example, there is a famous movie Legally Blonde 2: Red, White Blonde (2003) directed by Charles Herman-Wurmfeld with Reese Witherspoon as the star part. The main topic of this film is the tests of the cosmetics primarily on dogs. The story of the little dog named Bruiser attracted attention to the problem and made the scopes of the problem being widely discussed. Nowadays, the majority of people do know that animal testing is unethical and illegal. However, they keep buying these products despite considering it as unacceptable. In support of this viewpoint, the survey was conducted. There were five questions: Did you know that the products like household chemicals, medicines, and cosmetics are tested on animals? Buying washing powder or cosmetics, do you think of murdered animals that are involved in testing of these products? We live in the 21st century with highly developed technology and various computer measures used in science. How do you think, is animal testing still a relevant measure to test products? What is your attitude to animal testing? In order to make a conclusion, should household chemicals and cosmetics be tested on animals? Every question has multiple choice of answers, including â€Å"I don’t care† to every question. 22 respondents took part in the survey. 90. 91% (20 of 22) confessed that they knew about animal testing phenomenon, and only 2 said that they doubted that animal testing were true. The answers on the second question showed different attitudes: 9.09% knew about the cruel tests, but still bought the considered products, 22.73% tried not to buy them but still did, 27.27% did not buy such products at all, the same amount was indifferent to the conducted tests, and, finally, 13.64% did not know about tests. The third question showed different results as well. 40.91% of participants said that animal testing was still relevant way of testing, 77.7% of respondents believed that computer could not precisely predict the reaction since it was only a machine, and the rest suggested that animal testing was cheaper and easier. 54.55% of respondents considered vivisection non-relevant, and the rest were indifferent. The attitudes to animal tests were mostly negative – 63.64% considered it to be unethical due to various reasons; 27.28% had a positive opinion on vivisection, and 9.09% were indifferent. Finally, the fifth question 54.55% of respondents definitely were against vivisection, 22.73% were for animal testing, 18.18% found it hard to give a clear answer on that question, and 4.55% were indifferent. Obviously, this survey is too brief to show some evident results, but still, the majority of people are against animal testing. The good thing is that that the variant â€Å"I don’t care† picked only 1 respondent. The rest 21 participants had a deal with this problem, and this is hopeful. Perhaps, if the survey was major, with a larger amount of respondents and survey questions, the result would be more clear and obvious. In order to make a conclusion, animal testing is known as the use of animals in experiments and has caused controversies among researchers and common people. Some argue that it is moral while others contend that it is unethical. In fact, the debate about the use of animals in such experiments raises controversies that are yet to be resolved. Even though the proponents think that animals are better to use than humans, it will be significant to look for other alternative ways of testing human medication that does not impede the rights of animals (Hofer et al. 2004). The reason is that animals the same as humans have the right to live. Killing animals because of experiments remains immoral; hence it is vital to have better ways of determining the effectiveness of any kind of human medications. This will lessen the injuries and subsequent death rates of animals. Therefore, the points of the opponents in this argument are stronger than the supporters’ reasons. That is why this crue l trend should be banned as it can harm humans while abusing animals in the process. In my opinion, there is no argument to support animal testing. This means that it is morally incorrect because these innocent animals lose their freedom and life being placed in cages in laboratories. They are still restricted in cages after testing so that scientists can observe their reactions and responses to the test. Additionally, many end up dying because of the cruel and painful tests. The thing is that that the dosage of drugs that are administered are often increased. Utilitarian Approach and Failure of Animal Testing Several researchers, including Gruen (2011), have argued that ethics is not an appropriate system that is entirely noble in theory but not good in practice. Deontological approaches were identified, including rights approaches to ethics, as not practical in the real world scenario. Utilitarianism does not commence with rules but with goals, and therefore, it has significant normative specificity. This is because actions are proscribed or prescribed on the degree to which they further define goals. According to Mitchell (2010), utilitarianism is not linked to complexities required in making deontological moral theories, including rights theory, which is applicable in real moral scenarios. Traditional utilitarian approach considers a certain action as a right if it produces as much or more of an increase in happiness of all affected by it. These views about the nature of rights theory have profound effects on the rights of animals. In this regard, this paper discusses utilitarian appro ach and failure of animal testing. Utilitarianism deploys aggregation of benefits and harms in order to determine the right course of action. This might appear quite appealing because it reduces moral choices to simple arithmetic (Wolff, 2006). Nevertheless, how does an individual quantify benefits and harms, particularly in dealing with animal research? For instance, development of cardiovascular bypass integrated innumerable animal experiments, which is an enormous harm. However, it eventually resulted in success of open-heart surgery, which is an enormous benefit. The utilitarian calculation or argument might conclude that this was a justifiable use of animals. By claiming that bettering condition of animals, for example, by curing their diseases, could justify an experiment, Gruen (2011), takes an absolutist approach to animals and their rights. In addition, Gruen (2011), also acknowledges that there are variations between sentient species. Overall, humans are at extreme end of the spectrum of species yet they have a sophisticated language skills, an awareness of others, self-awareness and the ability to plan. As a result, they might have preference over other species. Just like humans, nonhuman primates might have preference over rodents. On the other hand, Mitchell (2010), has argued that animals also have rights. The life of an animal has intrinsic value to that animal, and bestows moral status to those individuals. Human beings have no mandate to exploit other animals regardless of the possible gains to human beings. Mitchell (2010), stated that the best we can do with regard to animals is not to use them for testing. Other philosophers have also fought in favor of animals on the grounds of contractarianism and reverence for life concepts. Though such concepts seem to have not received proper attention from the researchers. Human Rights, Animals Rights The debate concerning the ethics experiments involving animals, resides on the issue of moral association between nonhumans and humans (Wolff, 2006). Over the centuries, Western philosophers have viewed humans from different perspective to the rest of the animal kingdom. For instance, Aristotle believed that there was a hierarchy of animals, with human beings at the top of it. According to Aristotle, humans were at the top due to ability to reason and rational thinking. Even within humans, there is hierarchy, with men being considered more rational than women. Descartes, on the other hand, considered nonhumans to be insentient machines. As a result, they could not feel pain. Because of this reason, they could be exploited ruthlessly. Other philosophers, such as Kant, acknowledged that animals could suffer, though they lack moral status. According to Wolff (2006), Jeremy Bentham, who lived in the 18th century, predicted that the time when the animals might acquire those rights that co uld have been withheld from them. The way we treat nonhuman creatures, especially animals, indicates a distinction we make between humans, whom we consider as individuals, and nonhumans, whom we consider as things. Though one might consider some animals as having certain special features, we consider all those features to be dependent and tradable based on the judgment that the sacrifice of the features will benefit us. According to Mitchell (2010), this trade is often permissible even when the animal interest is significant and the human interest is admittedly unimportant. The use of animals for the purposes of entertainment such as rodeos or circuses reflects such scenarios where human interest seems to be more significant than animal interest. It is known that animals are neither persons under the law nor in moral theory. They are property, which implies that they exist solely as means to human disposure. According to Mitchell (2010), they have interests, which cannot be sacrificed, even when the benefit to be gai ned by human is mere amusement at the cost of great pain to the animal. On the other hand, persons refer to precisely those beings, such as corporations, having interest, which can be traded for consequential reasons alone. An example of person is de jure person, which implies that their personhood exists solely because they result from creation of the legal system. However, every person has at least some interests, though not essentially similar interests, which are safeguarded by both law and moral theory. According to Gruen (2011), these interests are safeguarded even if trading them will cause consequences that deemed to be desirables. It is thought to believe that the theory of animal rights seeks to shift at least certain nonhuman to human side. The two reasons can support this movement. The first reason is that those supporting animal exploitation argue that nonhuman is qualitatively different from humans. As a result, animals can be classified as nonhumans (Gruen, 2011). However, animal rights proponents have argued that there is no such difference since some nonhumans will be in possession of the supposedly exclusive characteristic. It is not enough to argue that the difference of species alone is morally justified; after all, to depend on species alone as morally justified is to presume a difference that requires to be proved by individuals holding such views. Secondly, it is apparent some animals have certain characteristics that we often link to personhood. For instance, Gruen (2011), argues that empirical and theoretical considerations show that some animals possess desires, memory, intention, self-conscio usness and sense of future. Attribution of several of these mental conditions shows that it is sensibly perfect to consider certain animals as psychological individuals faring well or ill during the course of their life. Since animals have desires, and the capacity to act in pursuit of their goals, they might also be considered to have preference autonomy, which is a significant characteristic for attribution of rights. A popular misconception is that animal activists argue that animals be granted similar rights as human beings. (Wolff, 2006). In addition, the criticism itself shows a primary confusion concerning the tights theory. In several ways, the animal rights theory is concerned about the inclusion of nonhumans on the humans. This inclusion should be differentiated from the matter of the scope of any rights that animals might have once we move them from the nonhuman side to human side. However, there is one sense that considering animals as persons is extremely different from considering addition humans within that class. If we acknowledge that an individual is not a â€Å"thing†, the protection we have given that individual is at the same time significant, but also the bare minimum to differentiate that individual from being a thing. Saying that an animal is included in the category of persons says nothing concerning the scope of the tights the animals might have other than saying tha t we will safeguard the rights of that animal in order to acquire personhood status (Gruen, 2011). Certain counterarguments hinge on whether animals are moral beings. Mitchell (2010), concluded that only autonomous beings have rights. As a result, animals fail to meet the requirements specified for being full members of moral community, and therefore, they fail to qualify for rights. From the same perspective, we need to distinguish non-moral from moral beings. Moral beings exist within a web of obligations and reciprocal rights created by their own dialogue. On the contrary, non-moral beings exist outside that web. Mitchell (2010), pointed out that it is both cruel and senseless to try binding non-moral beings into the web. Despite animals having no rights, we have duties and obligations to them. Mitchell (2010), also draws a division line between wild animals and those that man has made dependent on him. Certain form of contractualism provides us with the most appropriate approach to moral theory. From the moral theory discussed below, animals will be denied moral standings. Par t of the problems experienced, when invoking the moral theory in solving ethical problems of animal experimentation, is the propensity to use address it using a single theoretical construct, be it contractualism or utilitarianism, which is a rights-based, or any other. In the place of both contractualism and utilitarianism, an approach similar to that deployed in resolving ethical dilemmas in clinical practice might be helpful. Moral Theory In order to assess claims concerning the normative indeterminacy of the rights theory, two distinct components or levels of moral theory will be discussed in this paper. Comparative normative guidance of the deontological and utilitarian approaches in relation to every component will also be explored (Mitchell, 2010). The first level or component of moral theory is what the theory preferably seeks. The second level offers a normative guidance to the personal level with regard to what they theory ideally requires. Ideal and Micro Component of Moral Theory This component of moral theory requires that we ask what the theory envisages as the appropriate state, which would be attained if the theory under consideration was accepted. For animal activists, the moral theory is a theory of abolition, and not regulation of institutional exploitation. Animal activists object to the treatment of animals exclusively as means to ends. As a result, they object to the property status of animals to be bargained away provided there is some kind of human benefit involved, which allows all their interests, such as their basic interest in physical security that is a requirement to meaningful acceptance of other interests (Mitchell, 2010). This would require complete abolition of those forms of animal exploitation, which are reliant on the status of animals. According to this component of moral theory, animal exploitation is unjust to the animals. The rights theory is considerably clear about this component of moral theory. As the rights theory condemns the institutionalized exploitation of nonhumans, it also condemns direct participation in exploitation of animals (Mitchell, 2010). If an individual proposes the abolition of human slavery due to its unjustness, that individual would seemingly conclude that ownership by a master is violative of the rights. Likewise, an individual exploiting animals by using them for experiments or eating their meat also perpetrates suffering among animals. However, a difficult moral issue remains unsolved. It is not possible to avoid participating in institutionalized exploitation of animals, because almost each aspect of our lives is some way linked to institutionalized animal exploitation. As such, animal activists and rights advocate are faced with difficult decisions, for instance, as to whether to utilize drugs tested on animals. Utilitarian theory is different from traditional animal welfare because it considers the long-term animal liberation. The long-term goal is more progressive than the conventional Welfarist approach provided every one of us agree on how to describe the competing interest. According to Wolff (2006), utilitarian theory is the same as animal welfare since it demands that we balance the interests of human beings against the interests of animals under circumstances threatening to compromise evaluation of animal interests in any event. Macro Component of Moral Theory In order to assess the claim that animal rights is unrealistic, absolutist or utopian, we must examine the macro aspects of rights theory. Finding a single instance in which the advocates of animal rights support the concept that there is any possibility of immediate action, which will lead to the immediate abolition of all institutionalized exploitation is a difficult task (Wolff, 2006). The only way that such an effort could succeed is if we were willing to rise up in violent confrontation given the large numbers of people participating in institutionalized exploitation. However, if there is sufficient numbers of people to make such scenario, the confrontation would be unnecessary, because people would be capable of effecting dramatic changes in treatment of animals via political means. According to Gruen (2011), nothing in the rights theory essentially precludes the animal advocate from pursuing judicial change or incremental legislative. However, it is hard to think that we can speak meaningfully of legal rights for animals only if they are considered property. In order to put the issue in the context of my earlier discussion of basic rights, only if animals are property, then their rights or those that are a requirement for the enjoyment of other non-basic rights can be sacrificed provided some benefit is found to exist. If we can kill animals for food, use them for experimentation, imprison animals in cages at zoos for amusement, or shoot them for fun, then saying that animals have rights is merely an abstract sense. According to Gruen (2011), basic rights are a requirement to enjoyment of non-basic rights. In addition, possession of non-basic in the absence of basic rights is useless. The opponents would respond that each movement achieves rights incrementally. For instance, Gruen (2011), cited that progress is made incrementally in social movement via continual reform. Gruen (2011), tried to compare the incremental progress made in social movement to the incremental progress made towards obliteration of exploitation of animals. This attempt failed to for the reason that no other circumstance is comparable with regard to the baseline protection afforded to nonhumans. To put the issue differently, once we have individuals who are holders of basic rights, it makes sense to talk about making incremental reforms in rights. Animal Testing and Ethics According to the opponents of animal testing, pain is an inherent evil, and any action causing pain to another creature, whether human or nonhuman, is not morally allowed. With regard to Wolff (2006), who is a utilitarian, animal activists claim that the moral question concerning animals is neither whether they can reason, nor whether they can talk. A researcher who forces rats to choose between starvation and electric shocks, in order to see if they can suffer from ulcers, does so, since he or she knows that rats have a similar nervous system as that of human. Pain is inherently an evil, whether witnessed by an adult, an animal or a child. If it is not right to inflict pain on people, it is also wrong to inflict pain on nonhumans. In addition, it is suggested that the lives of creatures, both small and large, have value and should be respected. The right to be treated with respect does not rely on the capability to reason. Just like an insane should be treated with respect despite inability to act rationally, animals should also be treated with respect, this does not involve people exploiting animals and depriving them of their right to life. The right to treatment with respect rests on a creature being a subject of life, with certain preferences, experiences and interests. Like human beings, animals are subjects of life. Painful animal testing is not morally permissible. Utilitarianism does not commence with rules but with goals, and therefore, it has significant normative specificity. Utilitarian approach might appear quite appealing because it reduces moral choices to simple arithmetic. The way people treat nonhuman creatures, especially animals, indicates a distinction they make between humans, whom we consider as individuals, and nonhumans, whom we consider as things. There are certain counterarguments that hinge on whether animals are moral beings. The macro component of moral theory requires that we ask what the theory envisages as the appropriate state, which would be attained if the theory under consideration was accepted. Finally, issue can be supported by claiming that most scientific research involving animal testing has no scientific merit, since most scientific experiments are performed out of curiosity. Animals are shocked, burned, stared and poisoned as researchers look for information that might result in human benefit.